A
Absolute Monarch: Political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch, who has unlimited power.
Acropolis: Highest and most fortified point within a Greek city-state.
Acupuncture: Chinese method of treating disorders by inserting needles into the skin. This is to help with the flow of energy that is thought to be blocked.
Alloy: Mix or blend of one metal with another.
Anthropology: The scientific study of the origin, development, and varieties of human beings and their societies, particularly so-called primitive societies.
Aqueducts: Above ground structures used to carry water long distances. They were built by the Ancient Romans.
Archaeology: The scientific study of historic or prehistoric peoples and their cultures by analysis of their artifacts, inscriptions, monuments, and other such remains, esp. those that have been excavated.
Artifacts: Objects made by human beings.
Astrolabe: A device used to determine latitude by observing the altitude and position of the sun or other star or planet.
Autocrat: Ruler who has complete authority.
B
Balance of Power: A political policy in which countries attempt to preserve peace by keeping an equal military and economic status.
Barbarians: A member of a people considered by those of another nation or group to have a primitive civilization. The Romans considered the Huns, Goths, Visigoths and Vandals to be barbarians.
Bourgeoisies: Term given to the middle class people in society.
Brahman: Single unifying spirit in Hindu belief.
Bread and Circuses: The government kept the Roman populace happy by distributing free food and staging huge spectacles; government policies that seek short-term solutions to public unrest.
Bureaucracy: government with many parts, administrators, and officials.
Bushido Code: Code of conduct for Samurai and nobles during Japanese feudalism.
C
Caliph: Successor to the Prophet Mohammed. He is both political and spiritual leader of Islam.
Calligraphy: A form of fine handwriting.
John Calvin: (1509-1564) Church reformer who developed a form of Protestantism during the Reformation. His church is known for the idea of predestination, which states certain people are predestined for heaven.
Canonized: It is the official recognition by the Catholic Church as a saint.
Canon Law: Body of the laws of a church.
Caravel: A Portuguese ship that had a large cargo area and used two or three masts.
Cartography: The skill of making maps.
Caste System: A rigid social class system in Hinduism.
Census: A population count.
Chinampas: Floating islands of land anchored to a lake bottom used for agriculture. This technique was used by the Aztecs.
Chivalry: Code of conduct for knight and nobles during European feudalism.
Circumnavigate: To travel around something, like an island or the world.
Civil Law: Body of law dealing with private rights of individuals.
Civil Service Exam: In China, it was an exam based on Confucian teachings that was used to select people for various government service jobs in the bureaucracy.
Classical Civilization: a civilization that sets patterns in government, philosophy, religion, science, and the arts that serve as a framework for later cultures.
Comedy: In ancient Greece, a play that mocked people or social customs.
Congress of Vienna: Meeting of European political leaders to reestablish former territorial borders after the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the fall of Napoleon. The Congress was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815, and was dominated by Prince Metternich of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Conquistadors: Spanish conquerors who came to the New World in search of gold and other riches.
Conservative: A person favoring traditional views and values; tending to oppose change.
Consul: In Ancient Rome, an official from the Patrician class that supervised the government and commanded the armies.
Continental System: Napoleon’s plan in 1806 to blockade Britain by excluding her ships from ports on the mainland of Europe.
Council of Trent: A group of Catholic leaders that met between 1545 and 1563 to respond to Protestant challenges and direct the future of the Catholic Church.
Counter Reformation: The reaction of the Roman Catholic Church to the Reformation. The chief aims of the Counter Reformation were to increase faith among church members, get rid of some of the abuses to which the leaders of the Reformation objected, and affirm some of the principles rejected by the Protestant churches.
Creoles: In colonial Latin America, American born Spanish gentry, they owned most of the land but were treated like second class citizens, and were denied political rights.
Crimean War: (1853-56) A war fought in the middle of the nineteenth century between Russia on one side and Turkey, Britain and France on the other. Russia was defeated, and the independence of Turkey was guaranteed.
Criminal Law: Branch of law that deals with offenses against others, such as robbery, assault, or murder.
Culture: The sum of attitudes, customs, and beliefs that distinguishes one group of people from another. Culture is transmitted, through language, material objects, ritual, institutions, and art, from one generation to the next.
Cuneiform: One of the earliest forms of writing. It consisted of wedge shaped symbols usually imprinted in clay. Used throughout ancient Mesopotamia.
Cyrillic: An alphabet created by Eastern Orthodox monks for the Slavic language. It is based on Greek, and still used through the various Slavic countries today, such as Russia.
Czar: Title of the ruler of Russia. It is taken from the word Caesar, which means emperor.
D
Daimyo: Land owning feudal lords in Japan.
Decembrist Revolution: A group of young, reformist military officers attempted to force the adoption of a constitutional monarchy in Russia by preventing Nicholas I from becoming Czar. It failed.
Decimal System: Numeric system based on ten. It was created by mathematicians during the Gupta golden age in India.
Declaration of the Rights of Man: Revolutionary document of the French Revolution. Written in 1789, it spelled out certain rights believed to be universal to all mankind. Patterned on the American Declaration of Independence.
Delta: Triangular area of marshland formed by deposits of silt at the mouth of some rivers.
Democracy: Government in which people hold ruling power.
Dharma: In Hinduism, the moral and religious duties that are expected of an individual.
Diaspora: The enforced spreading out of a group of people.
Diet of Worms: Meeting held in (1521) at which Luther was condemned as a heretic.
Direct Democracy: System of government in which citizens participate directly in the day-to-day affairs of the government rather than through elected representatives.
Divine Right: The justification of monarchy through the word of God. The power to rule comes from God.
Dowry: Payment to the bridegroom or his family in arranged marriage.
Dynastic Cycle: In China, a dynasty would remain in power only as long as it was providing good government. When a dynasty went into decline, and began to abuse its power, it was said to lose the Mandate of Heaven, or the favor of the gods. A strong leader would usually emerge to claim the Mandate, and establish a new dynasty. The dynastic cycle would then begin again.
Dynasty: A succession of rulers of a country from the same family.
E
Economists: One who studies production, distribution and consumption of goods and services including supply and demand.
Encomienda System: A system of production in Spain’s New World possessions which granted permission to conquistadors to enslave as many people needed to work a plantation.
English Bill of Rights: (1689) A Bill of Rights written after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 which placed William and Mary on the throne of England. The bill created a limited monarchy and established Parliament as the ruling body of the nation.
English Civil War (Puritan Revolution): Political and Religious revolution in England between 1640 and 1660. The monarchy was abolished in favor of a Republic led by Oliver Cromwell. It ended with the seating of Charles II on the throne. Also known as the English Revolution.
Engraving: An art form in which an artist etches a design on a metal plate with acid and then uses the plate to make multiple prints.
Enlightened Despot: A monarch who retains absolute control of their country while also enacting reform based on Enlightenment ideas.
Enlightenment (Age of Reason): A movement in the 18th century that stressed the importance of reason and science in philosophy and the study of human society. Occurred in Western Europe.
Estates-General: The legislative body of France. Composed of representatives from the three estates which are Clergy in the First Estate, Nobles in the Second Estate, and peasants in the Third Estate. Each Estate is entitled to one vote on legislative matters. The Estates General was never as strong as the British Parliament of the American Congress.
Excommunication: Exclusion from the Roman Catholic Church as a penalty for refusing to obey Church laws.
Expansionism: The policy of increasing the amount of territory a government controls.
F
Fertile Crescent: An area in the Middle East, present day Iraq, located between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Also known as Mesopotamia.
Feudalism: A social, political, and economic system that dominated all aspects of medieval European life.
Fief: An area of land given to a person to farm in exchange for certain obligations.
Filial Piety: the important virtue and primary duty of respect, obedience, and care for one’s parents and elderly family members.
First Estate: The first of the three estates in the Estates-General in France. It was made up of the clergy.
Free Market: Allowing natural forces of supply and demand to operate and regulate business.
Fresco: The art or technique of painting on a moist, plaster surface.
G
Gentry: Members of the upper class in some social class systems. Usually wealthy land owners. (ex: China).
Glorious Revolution: Political revolution in Great Britain in 1688 that put William and Mary on the throne, while limiting the power of the monarchy and making Parliament supreme. This event marks the beginning of a constitutional monarchy in England.
Glyph: Pictograph or other symbol carved into a surface.
Golden Age: A time in a culture of high achievement in arts, literature, and science. Generally occurs in times of peace.
Golden Horde: The Mongol army that swept over eastern Europe in the 13th century and established control over parts of Russia. [From the golden tent of their commander.]
Great Wall: a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials. It was built to protect China against raids and invasions from various nomadic groups.
H
Habeas Corpus: Principle that a person cannot be help in prison without first being charged with a specific crime.
Hegira: The flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Median which was instrumental to the founding of the religion of Islam. Occurs in 622 ACE, which dates the founding of Islam.
Hellenistic: Time period from the late 4th century BCE to the 1st century CE that was characterized by Greek achievement and a blending of Persian, Egyptian, Greek, and Indian cultures due to the empire of Alexander the Great.
Heresy: A belief or teaching considered unacceptable by a religious group (Catholic Church).
Hieroglyphics: A system of writing which uses pictures for concepts and ideas.
Historian: A person who studies how people lived long ago.
Humanism: A philosophical movement during the Renaissance that stressed life on Earth, and the quality of being human. Rejected living only for the afterlife of Christianity.
Humanities: The subjects taught in ancient Greek and Roman schools. The main areas of study were grammar, rhetoric, poetry, and history.
Human Sacrifice: The act of killing one or more human beings as part of a religious ritual (ritual killing). It was practiced by the Mayas and Aztecs in Central America.
Hypothesis: Possible explanation.
I
Icon: An image used in worship among some Christians. Icons depict Jesus, Mary, and the saints, usually in a symbolic, nonrealistic way.
Iconoclast: A person who destroys religious images or opposes their veneration (holding in high position).
Ignatius of Loyola: (1491-1556) Founded the Society of Jesus, the Order of the Jesuits. He worked to combat the Protestant Reformation by providing strong Catholic leadership to monarchs across Europe.
Indulgences: In the Roman Catholic Church, a pardon for sins committed during a person’s lifetime.
Inflation: Economic cycle that involves a rapid rise in prices and a decrease in the value of money.
Inquisition: A court established by the Roman Catholic Church in the thirteenth century to try cases of heresy and other offenses against the church. Those convicted could be handed over to the civil authorities for punishment, including execution.
Irrigation: To supply (dry land) with water by means of ditches, pipes, or streams.
J
Jesuits: A group of religious of men in the Roman Catholic Church; its official name is the Society of Jesus. Founded by Ignatius of Loyola in the sixteenth century, the society became the spearhead of the Counter Reformation.
Jury: Group of people sworn to make a decision in a legal case.
Justinian’s Code: A law code created by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian about 530 CE. It was a revision of the old Roman law system.
K
Karma: Actions in this life resulting from the consequences of a previous life’s actions.
Genghis Khan: (1167-1227) One of the Mongol’s greatest leaders and founder of the Mongol Empire.
Kublai Khan: (1215-1294) Grandson of Genghis Khan and founder of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China.
Knight: Noble in Europe who served as a mounted warrior for a lord in the Middle Ages.
L
Laissez Faire: This was an economic philosophy begun by Adam Smith in his book, Wealth of Nations, that stated that business and the economy would run best with no interference from the government. This economic system dominated most of the Industrial Revolution.
Land Bridge: The oceans froze into thick ice sheets causing the sea level to drop. This exposed land between Siberia and Alaska allowing for migration between the continents.
Latifundia: Huge estates bought up by newly wealthy Roman citizens.
Law of the Twelve Tables: Laws of ancient Rome written on twelve tablets and displayed in the marketplace.
Legion: Basic unit of the Ancient Roman army made up of about 5,000 soldiers.
Legislature: Lawmaking body.
Liberal: A person favoring proposals for reform, open to new ideas.
Limited Monarchy: Government in which a constitution or legislative body limits the monarch’s power.
Lineage: Group claiming to have common ancestors.
Luther, Martin: (1483-1546) Religious reformer who started the Reformation with his 95 Theses which protested church corruption, namely the sale of indulgences.
M
Magna Carta: A document granting rights to both the Church in England and the Nobility signed by King John in 1215. This is considered to be the beginnings of British democracy.
Mandate of Heaven: Divine right of rule in China.
Manor: During the Middle Ages in Europe, a lord’s estate, which included one or more villages and the surrounding lands.
Manorialism: Economic portion of feudalism where all aspects of life were centered on the lord’s manor including peasant villages, a church, farm land, a mill, and the lord’s castle or manor house.
Mansa: A title given to the kings of Mali (Mansa Musa).
Matrilineal: Term for a family organization in which kinship ties are traced through the mother’s heritage.
Mercenaries: A professional soldier hired and paid to serve in a foreign army.
Mesoamerica: A region of Central America and Mexico where several pre-Columbian civilizations lived including the Mayas and the Aztecs.
Messiah: According to the Hebrew Bible, an anointed king who will lead the Jews back to the land of Israel and establish justice in the world. According to the Christians, the Messiah was Jesus Christ.
Mestizos: In colonial Latin America, Spanish/Native America who were denied basic political, economic, and social rights due to their mixed heritage.
Prince Metternich: (1773-1859) Chancellor of the Astro-Hungarian Empire between 1821 and 1848. He was the most powerful political figure in Europe between 1814 and 1848. He was driven from power in the Revolutions of 1848.
Monarchy: Government in which a king or queen exercises central power.
Monopoly: Complete control of a product or business by one person or group.
Monotheism: The belief in one god or goddess.
Monroe Doctrine: (1823) A political policy of the United States by President James Monroe that states the Western Hemisphere is closed to European interference.
Monsoon: Seasonal winds; in India, the winter monsoon brings hot, dry weather and the summer monsoon brings rain.
Mosaic: Picture made of chips of colored stone or glass
Mulattoes: In colonial Latin America, Spanish/African who were denied basic political, economic, and social rights due to their mixed heritage.
Mummification: The process of preserving a corpse by removing the moisture from it before burial. This process was practiced by many different cultures.
N
Napoleonic Code: The French law code established by Napoleon in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs go to the most qualified.
National Assembly: First new government during the first stage of the French Revolution formed by the Third Estate.
Nationalism: Pride in one’s country or culture, often excessive in nature.
Natural laws: Rule or law that governs human nature.
Natural rights: Concept of John Locke’s that states all people have the right to life, liberty, and property.
95 Theses: Document written by Martin Luther detailing what he believed to be the problems in the medieval Church.
Nirvana: In Buddhism, union with universe and release from the cycle of death and rebirth.
O
Oligarchy: Government in which ruling power belongs to a few people.
Oracle Bones: In ancient China, they were pieces of bone or turtle shell used by Shang priests to tell the future. They would write a question addressed to either one of the gods, or an ancestor on the bone, then heat it until it cracked. They believed that by studying the pattern of cracks, one could learn the answer to the question. Oracle bones are the oldest example of Chinese writing.
P
Pagoda: Multi-storied Buddhist temple with eaves that curve up at the corners.
Parliament: A government’s legislative body. (make laws)
Patriarch: In the Byzantine Empire, highest church official in a major city like Constantinople.
Patrician: A member of the upper class of ancient Roman society.
Patrilineal: Term for a family organization in which kinship ties are traced through the father’s heritage.
Patron: A person who provides financial support for the arts.
Pax Mongolia: Also known as the Mongol Peace. It was a time when global trade expanded due to the political stability provided by Mongol rulers.
Pax Romana: A 200 year period of relative peace throughout the Roman Empire. It occurs during the first two centuries C.E.
Peasant: Members of the lowest class in some social class systems.
Peninsulares: In colonial Latin America, Spanish official sent to govern Latin American colonies. They controlled government completely.
Perspective: In drawing or painting, a way of portraying three dimensions on a flat, two-dimensional surface by suggesting depth or distance.
Phalanx: In ancient Greece, a massive formation of heavily armed foot soldiers.
Pharaoh: In ancient Egypt, title given to the ruler who was considered both king and god.
Plantation: Large estate run by an owner or overseer and worked by laborers who live there.
Plebeian: A member of the lower class of ancient Roman society.
Polis: City-state in Greece.
Polo, Marco: (1254-1324) Italian explorer and author. He made numerous trips to China and returned to Europe to write of his journeys. He is responsible for much of the knowledge exchanged between Europe and China during this time period.
Polytheism: The belief in many gods or goddesses.
Pre-Columbian: Period of North and South American history before the arrival of the Europeans (Columbus) in the late 15th century.
Predestination: The idea of Calvinist Protestants that certain people were pre-selected to go to heaven.
The Prince: A book of political advice written by Niccolo Machiavelli during the Renaissance in which he describes the methods that a prince should use to acquire and maintain political power. This book was used to defend policies of despotism and tyranny. Machiavelli wrote that a ruler should take any action to remain in power, or that “the ends justifies the means.”
Prehistory: The period of time before people developed a writing system
Princep: “First Citizen”, was the official title of the Roman Emperor. It was first used by Caesar Augustus.
Punic Wars: Three wars between ancient Carthage and Rome in the third and second centuries B.C. Hannibal led the forces of Carthage in the second Punic War. Carthage was destroyed after the third Punic War.
Q
Quipu: A record keeping system that used colored, knotted string developed by the Incan civilization.
R
Recant: To take back and opinion or statement, especially formally.
Reign of Terror: A phase of the French Revolution aimed at destroying all alleged pockets of resistance to the revolution. Robespierre was a leader of the Terror, during which thousands were sent to the guillotine.
Reincarnation: The rebirth of a soul into another body.
Renaissance: A rebirth of cultural and intellectual pursuits after the stagnation of the Middle Ages. This period in European history, from about the 14th through 16th centuries, features major cultural and artistic change.
Republic: A political system in which a country is ruled by law, has representative government, and is democratic in nature.
S
Sacraments: Religious practices such as baptism, and receiving the Eucharist.
Samurai: Warrior class during Japan’s feudal age.
Scientific Method: Uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on the workings of the universe.
Scientific Revolution: An offshoot of the Renaissance in which scientists questioned traditional beliefs about the workings of the universe. One of the main ideas to come out of the Scientific Revolution was the use of the Scientific Method. The Scientific Method uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on how the universe works.
Scurvy: Disease caused by lack of Vitamin C in the diet
Second Estate: The second of the three estates in the Estates-General in France. It was made up of the nobles.
Secular: Not concerned with religion or religious matters.
Serfs: Farmers who were tied to the land during European feudalism. They were not slaves because they could not be bought or sold, but they could not readily leave the manor either. Serfs were given land to farm in exchange for service to their lord. This service usually involved working the lord’s fields, maintaining roads and the manor, and providing military service in times of war. Serfs paid taxes to their lord in the form of crops. This is also how the paid the fee to use the manor’s mill or other services.
Sharia: The Islamic book of laws which regulates all aspects of life including, moral behavior, family life, business dealings, and government.
Shogun: Military ruler of feudal Japan.
Silk Road: Trade route from China to the Middle East. It is called the Silk Road due to China’s most important export.
Silt: Very fine grains of dirt deposited by moving of water.
Slash and burn agriculture: A farming method in which forest and brush are cut down and burned to create fields for planting crops.
Social contract: Theory of Thomas Hobbes that states the people form a social contract with government where they give up all rights for protection from other citizens.
Song Dynasty: The imperial dynasty of China from 960 to 1279; noted for art and literature and philosophy.
Spanish American War: (1898) A war between the United States and Spain over the control of Cuba. The United States won this war and gained independence for Cuba, and control of the Philippines.
Stupas: a dome-shaped structure erected as a Buddhist shrine.
Subcontinent: Large area that is a separate part of a continent. The area encompassing India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh are considered to be a subcontinent of Asia.
Succession: The process by which or the conditions under which one person after another succeeds to the leadership of a nation or region. (who rules next)
Sultan: A Muslim ruler.
Sultanate: Land ruled over by a Muslim Sultan.
Surplus: Have more than enough of a product or resource.
T
Tang Dynasty: The dynasty of China from 618 to 907. They made numerous achievements in the areas of law, government, and art.
Technology: Skills and tools used to meet basic needs.
Tennis Court Oath: After being locked out of the Estates General the Third Estate held a meeting at a tennis court in which they formed the National Assembly and resolved to write a new Constitution for France.
Terrace Farming: The cutting out of flat areas (terraces) into near vertical slopes to allow farming. Terrace farms appears as steps cut into a mountainside. This adaptation allowed both the early Chinese, and the Inca of Mesoamerica to grow enough food for their large populations.
Theocracy: A nation or state in which the clergy exercise political power and in which religious law is dominant over civil law.
Third Estate: The third of the three estates in the Estates-General in France. It was made up of the common man.
Tolerance: Acceptance of those that are different.
Toleration Act 1689: The British Parliament granted religious freedom to Protestants. Protestants could have their own places of worship, teachers, and preachers.
Tragedy: In ancient Greece, a play that focused on human suffering and very often ended in disaster.
Tribune: An official in Ancient Rome that was elected by the plebeians to protect their interests.
Tribute: Payment that conquered peoples were forced to make to their conquerors.
Tributary State: Independent state that has to acknowledge the supremacy of another state and pay tribute (tax) to its ruler.
Triumvirate: A government with three leaders who work together with equal power.
U
V
Vassal: A person owing service to a feudal lord.
Vernacular: The everyday language of an ordinary people.
Veto: Power to block a government action.
Viceroy: Representative who ruled one of Spain’s provinces in the Americas in the king’s name, one who governed in India in the name of Britain’s monarch.
W
Warm-Water Ports: Port that is free of ice year round.
Welfare: Government-provided support for those unable to support themselves.
Westernization: To adopt western ideas, technology, and culture.
X
Y
Yuan Dynasty: Dynasty that controlled China from 1279 to 1368. It was a foreign run dynasty led by initially by the Mongol Kublai Khan.
Z
Wu Zhao: First and only female empress of China. She was ruthless but kept China unified during the Tang Dynasty.
Ziggurat: Pyramid-temple dedicated to the chief god or goddess of an ancient Sumerian city-state.